Analisis Tata Bahasa Kasus (Case Grammar)

3^rd group, English letters Department, Islamic State University Jakarta

General Linguistics

      Asri sukowati

      Hafizah Adha

      Saidah Turahmah

      Yani Aprillia P

MORPHOLOGY

Introduction to Morphology

Words are an important part of linguistic knowledge and constitute a component of our mental grammars. But one can learn thousands of words in a language and still not know the language. Anyone who has tried to be understood in a foreign country by merely using a dictionary knows this is true. On the other hand, without words we would be unable to convey our thoughts through language.   

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of the words. The terms Phonology (for sound structure) and Syntax (for sentences structure) had existed when the term morphology was introduced. Thus, Morphology is a young discipline. Based on general pattern differences between Morphology and Syntaxes, morphology refer to structure of words and syntaxes which organize those combine in sentences.

The Goals of Morphological Research

Morphological research aims to describe and explain the morphological patterns of human languages.

a.      Elegant Description, all linguists agree that morphological pattern (just like other linguistic pattern) should be described in an elegant and intuitively satisfactory way. The main criterion for elegance is generality. It is therefore useful to have a further objective criterion that makes reference to the speakers’ knowledge of their language.

b.      Cognitively Realistic Description is a much more ambitious goal than merely elegant description, and we would really have to be able to look inside people’s head for a full understanding of the cognitive machinery. Linguists sometimes reject proposed the description because they seem cognitively implausible, and sometimes they collaborate with physiologists and neurologists and take their research into an account. 

c.        System External Explanation plural of people denoting nouns are more useful, and languages across the world are thus more likely to have them. This explanation is of system external explanation in the sense that is refers to facts outside the language system: the usefulness of number distinctions in speech.

d.      A restrictive architecture for description, linguists try to construct architecture for description (also called grammatical theory) that all languages-particular descriptions must conform to. A possible architecture for grammar is shown in figure below.

Syntax *Fronting rules* Word combination rules

Sound

Phonology -Pronunciation rules

Morphology *Morpheme-combination rules

meanings

   

This figure is restrictive because it automatically disallows certain logically possible interactions of rules. For these linguists, one goal of morphological research s to discover those principles of the innate Universal Grammar that are relevant of word structure.

Kinds of Words

            Languages make an important distinction between two kinds of words. There are content words and function words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverb are the content words. Content words are something called the open class of words because we can regularly do add new words to these classes. There are other classes of words that do not have clear lexical meaning or obvious concepts associated with them, including conjunction such as and, or, and but; prepositions such as in and of; the articles the, a/an, and pronouns such as it and he. These kinds of words are called function words because they have a grammatical function. Function words are sometimes called closed class words. It is difficult to think of new conjunction, prepositions, or pronouns that have recently entered the language.  These two classes of words have different functions in language. Content words have semantic content (meaning). Function words play a grammatical role.

Morphemes

 In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest semantically meaningful unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is a freestanding unit of meaning. Every word comprises one or more morphemes.

            One morpheme                      : boy, desire

                        Two morphemes                     : boy + ish, desire + able

                        Three morphemes                  : boy + ish + ness, desire + able + ity

                        Four morphemes                    : gentle + man + li + ness, un + desire + able + ity

                        More four morphemes           : un + gentle + man + li + ness

                                                                          Anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + an + ism

Morphemes are not the segment of word, hasn’t position in the word (for example: in A examination, the morphemes become xa or ax), but it has factorial function. If the word can divide into segments, it becomes references as morphs. If the word bigger can analyzed become two morphs, it could be written in orthographic manner as big and er (based on English orthographic convince added ‘g’ connecting and in phonology transcript as /big/ and /ә/. Every morph realize exponent of certain morphemes. Here we can know differences between morpheme and morphs.

            Sometimes certain morpheme isn’t always realized by same morphs, but it done by different morphs in different environment. Alternative realizes of morpheme called allomorphs. We should pay attention that orthographic convince differentiating those two of three, -s for /s/ and /z/ and –es for /iz/. Morpheme of present tense singular can be hint as {z} to make a difference with {s} morphemes that shape English noun plural, regularly realized by the same three allomorphs. And explanation of identical limited phonologic:

verbs

(i)                 /fi∫iz/, fishes; /kæt∫iz/, catches; etc;

(ii)               /digz/, digs; /ebz/, ebbs; etc

(iii)             /kiks/, kick; /sips/, sips; etc

Morphemes of past tense {ed} also regularly realized by three limited allomorphs those are : /t/, /d/, and /id/

            Kinds of Morphemes

I.                    Free morphemes, some morphemes like boy, desire, gentle, and man may constitute words by themselves. These are free morphemes which can occur freely on their own.

II.                  Bound morphemes, appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes. Bound morphemes that are not affixes are called cranberry morphemes, their nomenclature derived from the bound, non-affix function of cran- in the word cranberry.

Affix	Example	Schema	Description
Prefix	un-do	prefix-stem	Appears at the front of a stem
Suffix/Postfix	look-ing	stem-suffix	Appears at the back of a stem
Suffixoid/Semi-suffix	cat-like	stem-suffixoid	Appears at the back of a stem but is somewhere between a free and bound morpheme
Infix	Minne⟨flippin'⟩sota	st⟨infix⟩em	Appears within a stem — common in Borneo-Philippines languages
Circumfix	a⟩scatter⟨ed	circumfix⟩stem⟨circumfix	One portion appears at the front of a stem, and the other at the rear
Interfix	speed-o-meter	stema-interfix-stemb	Links two stems together in a compound
Duplifix	teeny~weeny	stem~duplifix	Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem (may occur in front, at the rear, or within the stem)
Transfix	Maltese: k⟨i⟩t⟨e⟩b "he wrote" (compare root ktb"write")	s⟨transfix⟩te⟨transfix⟩m	A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem
Simulfix	mouse → mice		Changes a segment of a stem
Suprafix	produce (noun) produce (verb)		Changes a suprasegmental phoneme of a stem
Disfix	Alabama: tipli "break up" (compare root tipasli"break")	Stm	The elision of a portion of a stem

Words Formation (Word Coinage)

Word coinage, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term are quite easy to perceive there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages:

• Bound morphemes like –ify and –cation are called derivational morphology. When they are added to a root morpheme or stem, a new word with a new meaning is derived. The addition of –ify to pure – purify --- means “to make pure” and the addition of –ation ----purification means “the process of making pure” the form that results from the addition of a derivational morpheme is called a derived word. Derivational morphemes have clear semantics content. In this sense they are like content words, except that they are not words. Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes – are added at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word, but infixes are unusual in English. English prefixes include for example re-, un-, mis-, pre-, dis-; suffixes include for instance -ful, -less, -able, -or. It seems that infixes in English are confined to curse words such as: absofuckinglutely, in fuckingcredible.

Noun to Adj	Verb to Noun	Adjective to Adverb
Boy + ish	Conform + ist	Exact + ly
Virtu + ous	Predict + ion	Quiet + ly
Elizabeth + an	Free + dom
Health + ful	Sing + er

The redundancy of alternative forms such as those mentioned, all of which conform to the regular rules of word formation, may explain some of the accidental, or lexical, gaps in the lexicon. Accidental gaps are well-formed but nonexistent word.

·         Whereas derivational affixes often involve a change of class- such as the verb ‘attract’ becoming the adjective ‘attractive’. Inflectional suffixes never involve a change of class. Inflectional morphology occurs with nouns, pronouns, and verbs. In  nouns, inflection marks plurality in regular nouns :

        I.            And the possessive all nouns : John---john’s book/books, the man---the man’s book/books

      II.            Plurality in regular nouns : book—books, chair—chairs. 

    III.            Irregular nouns often form their plurals by a vowel change : foot ---feet, man---men, mouse---mice.

    IV.            They form the possessive in exactly the same way as regular nouns: the dog—the dog’s tail, the mouse---the mouse’s nose

     

Differences between Inflection and Derivation

	Inflection	Derivation
i	Relevant to the syntax	Not relevant to the syntax
Ii	Obligatory expression to the feature	Not obligatory expressions
Iii	Unlimited applicability	Possibly limited applicability
Iv	Same concept as base	New concept
V	Relatively abstract meaning	Relatively concrete meaning
Vi	Compositional meaning	Possibly not compositional meaning
Vii	Expression of word periphery	Expressions close to the base
Viii	Less base allomorphs	More base allomorphs
Ix	No change of word-class	Sometimes change of word-class
X	Cumulative expressions possible	No cumulative expressions
Xi	Not iterable	Possibly iterable

• Compounding is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, and scarecrow. Compounds are pronounced as one unit, but sometimes difficulties in writing arise: some compounds are written with hyphens: full-time, good-looking; some are written separately: bank account, mini skirt; and some can be written in both ways.

• Blending is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog, motel made of motor and hotel, Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English; and guesstimate, from guess and estimate.

• Clipping is shortening or reducing long words. It is very common in English which can be seen on the following examples: information is clipped to info, advertisement to advert or ad, influenza to flu, telephone to phone.

• Coinage is creation of a totally new word. This word formation process is not frequent; however large corporations attempt to outdo one another to invent short eye-catching names for their products. Some examples of these could include: aspirin or Xerox. Sometimes the products that the companies want to sell simply take over the name of the creator or inventor. In such case the new word is called an eponym. Some well known eponyms include: sandwich, or hoover. They are very frequently used in science where units of measurement are named after people, like: hertz, volt, (degree) Celsius.

• Borrowing is taking a word from one language and incorporating it into another. The English language has been very absorbent and took over words from all over the world, some of them include: biology, boxer, ozone – from German; jackal, kiosk, yogurt – from Turkish; pistol, robot – from Czech.

There is also a special type of borrowing called calques or loan translation. Here there is a direct translation of the elements that a term consists of in the source language into the target language. For example the English word worldview is thought to be the calque of the German Weltanschauung, antibody calques German Antikörper.

• Acronym is a word formed from initial letters of a few words in a phrase or a name. Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each letter separately, as in CD, DVD, VCR, IBM, and FBI. Some are pronounced as words, like NATO, laser, AIDS, scuba.

• Backformation is a process in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. To show it on an example: the English word arms meaning weapon was back formed to arm to mean provide weapons, similarly edit was back formed from editor, or typewrite from typewriter.

• Conversion is a change in function of a verb without changing its form. Nouns start to be used as verbs like: bottle – to bottle, bottling: I’m bottling the compote; butter – to butter, buttered: I’ve buttered the bread. Also verbs can become nouns: must – a must: Watching this film is a must; guess – a guess: It was a lucky guess.

The above mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or important in the English language, but it is rarely the case that only one process occurs in one word. Words can be loaned and then back formed, later on gaining an affix. There are practically no boundaries to those processes other that human ingenuity.

Summary

      Morphology is the study of word formation and the internal structure. Morphemes combine according to the morphological rules of the language. A word consists of one or more morphemes. Lexical content morphemes that cannot be analyzed into smaller part are called root morphemes. When a root morpheme is combined with affix morphemes it forms a stem to form or word. Other affixes can be added to a stem to form a more complex stem which may also be a word.

      Some morphemes are bound in that they must be joined to other morphemes. Most morphemes are free in that they need to be attached to other morphemes.

      Lexical content, or root, morphemes constitute the major word classes –nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are open class item because their classes are easily added to.

      Morphemes may be derivational or inflectional. Morphological rules are rules of word formation. Derivational morphemes, when added to root or stem, may change a syntactic word class and/or the meaning of the words.

      Grammatical morphemes or function words constitute a closed class; that is, new function words do not enter the language.

      Grammar also includes ways of adding word and morphemes to the lexicon. Compounds are also source of new words. Morphological rules combine two or more words to form complex combination. Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. Blends are similar to compounds but usually combine shortened form of two or more morphemes or words. Eponyms are words taken form proper names.

Bibliographies

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hyams. 2003. An introduction to language. Seventh edition. Massachusset: Thomson.

http://www.scribd.com/doc/78850761/Understanding-Morphology-383p#

Lyons, John.1968. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. New York: Cambridge University Press